Introduction
The World
Declaration on `Education for All' (EFA) held at Jomtien,
Thailand in 1990 was based on the assumption that
literacy programme promotes Human Resource Development
at the mass level and it contributes to increase in
investment and output per worker. Literacy was found to
correlate with increased life expectancy and it
contributes a great deal to control of rapid population
growth. It also promotes participation of all
individuals in their local communities and in the global
society, which helps to create environment friendly
awareness. However, keeping in view low literacy and
high percentage of out-of-school children in general and
position of women in particular in India, it is unlikely
to achieve the goals of Education for All before the
turn of the present century as was envisaged in the
World declaration. Based on the growth of literacy
during the last decade and on the assumption of
continuation of past trend into the future, it is
unlikely that the status of universal literacy would be
attained before the year 2027 (Mehta, 1993 & 96). Hence,
rigorous efforts are needed to achieve the goals. It is
thus, of great importance to make concerted efforts to
bring all concerned under the umbrella of education,
efforts for which can be made both under formal and
non-formal sectors of education. Sporadic attempts have
been made in the recent past to obtain the goals of
universal primary education and literacy but still
achievement of goals are far out of the sight. Thus, it
is hoped that efforts would be further intensified and
would resulted into fulfillment of goals by introducing
innovative programmes at the grassroots level to promote
education of girls and women. Any programme/project can
be implemented efficiently, if management information
system is effective which can also play a positive role
in fulfillment of goals and objectives. Therefore, there
is a need first to develop an efficient management
information system with focus on non-formal literacy
programme, such as, Total Literacy Campaign (TLC) so
that the same can be used to monitor the programme in
general and education of girls and women in particular.
Need for a Database
The first stage of
planning in any sector of economy is diagnosis of
existing situation with particular reference to a number
of indicators which may be termed as stock taking. In
relation to planning for non-formal, literacy and
continuing education, it is better first to diagnose
literacy situation at the macro (country level) and/or
micro (District and Village) level. This can be done by
considering both time-series and cross-sectional data.
The data, so utilised may be quantitative as well as
qualitative in nature. The diagnosis exercise would help
us to evolve appropriate strategies to face the problems
and improve the existing position (for details see
UNESCO, 1994). The diagnosis exercise may be based on
both secondary i.e. census and primary sources i.e.
generated through surveys and projects. Thus, for
understanding of the existing situation, it would be
proper to develop a database which may include
information on a variety of variables both from formal
and non-formal sectors of education so that
out-of-school children and women who are at present not
enrolled can be identified and estimated in future.
Better, it would be to collect all the relevant
information at the local level for effective monitoring
of programme which can also help us to identify
educationally weaker areas in both educationally
advanced and backward districts. It would be proper to
have desegregated picture with particular reference to
male/female, deprived population, geographical location,
etc.. The database, so developed at the local level, in
turn can be linked to databases at the
block/district/country level. Thus, for diagnosis,
databases on the following areas need to be developed:
· General Demographic Indicators
· School Related
Information; and
· Literacy Statistics.
Before any programme/scheme is launched, it is
pre-requisite to know thoroughly the population for
which the scheme is planned. Not only total population
and its age and sex distribution but its rural/urban
distribution is also required at desegregated level. The
position of district vis-à-vis other districts in the
state and block with relation to other blocks of the
district needs to be analysed. Pockets within the
district/block having population growth higher/lower
than the state/district along with the reasons should be
identified. If considerable size of Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes population is available in the
block/district, due attention needs to be paid. In case
of elementary education, population of age-group 6-14
years is required as compared to population of 15-35
years for adult and continuing education (TLC)
programme. The basic information collected under the
demographic sector be further used to compute a variety
of indicators, such as, sex ratio, density of population
and annual rate of growth of population which can be of
grate help at the time of formulation of plan at
different levels of planning. For better planning,
reliable estimates of future population should only be
used.
Under the literacy sector,
both literates and illiterates over a period of time in
different age-groups and educational level of literates
needs to be thoroughly analysed. The literates in
different age-groups should be linked to corresponding
population so that areas where illiterate population
concentrate can be identified which should ultimately be
linked to opening of adult centers. While collecting
information, its likely use should be decided well in
advance. Information should not be collected for sake of
collection. Naturally, collection of information should
be linked to objectives of developing database and, if
focus is on girls and women, even minute information
which may influence their education be collected.
Though, the specific focus of planning in the present
context is on non-formal literacy programmes, it is
necessary to collect information on primary education
because primary schooling, literacy programmes and
non-formal continuing education programmes are
complementary to one other. The efficiency of primary
education system is directly related to the magnitude of
the problem of illiteracy. So far as the school related
information is concerned, the analysis should start from
the indicators which give information regarding access.
Number of habitations having primary and middle
schooling facilities should be first collected which
should be followed by information on percentage of rural
population served by the schooling facilities. Such type
of information can be obtained from all-India
educational surveys conducted from time to time which is
otherwise not available on regular basis through annual
collection of statistics. Information on access, should
be followed by collection of information on
infrastructural facilities available in a
school/block/district. Other important information
relate to schools need to be collected is enrolment and
attendance pattern; and pattern of wastage and
stagnation at different levels of schooling. While
analysing efficiency of education system, different
indicators of efficiency be computed separately for
male/female, rural/urban, SC/ST/General population etc.
so that they can help in identifying educationally
weaker areas within a block/district.
Information on these items are already available at
different levels but in disintegrated manner. It is not
only that the reference period and coverage are
different and data is out-dated but even the definition
of such terms as, literacy, being different under
different sets of data (Mehta, 1996). Thus, while
collecting such type of information, our focus should be
on diagnosing the existing situation and not merely for
preparation of status reports. Once the diagnosis is
over, the next stage of planning is review of past
plans, programmes and policies with respect to NFE and
adult/continuing programmes including that of case
studies of success and failure. This can be done by
using both qualitative as well as quantitative analysis
and by considering both government as well as
non-governmental programmes at macro and micro levels.
Based on the diagnosis of the
existing situation, it would be easy to identify areas
where more out-of-school children and illiterates are
concentrated. Interventions through innovative
programmes in these areas are required. Thus, for any
action based programme/project, monitoring plays an
important role in effective implementation of the
programme. For effective monitoring, strong Management
Information System (MIS) is required. Though, MIS at
different level is already in existence, but for
effective implementation of National Policy on Education
(1986 & 1992), literacy and continuing education
programmes, such as, total literacy campaign, existing
information systems need to be integrated so that it can
become a decision support system at different levels of
planning. Thus, a management information system (for
details see UNESCO, 1994) of non-formal literacy
programme with focus on girls and women needs to be
developed with following objectives :
§ to collect, process, store, analyse and disseminate
information
§ to provide educational planners/project
functionaries with reliable and timely data and
information for decision-making
§ to aggregate
different databases and integrate them into a system
§ to prepare and disseminate aggregate statistics
§
to feedback information to village/block/district and
project level to improve the quality of the programme
and
§ to provide information that would help project
functionaries set norms for performance and achievement
indicators and to set the criteria for success and
failure.
The first step in
developing an educational MIS is the identification of
type of information required at different levels.
Broadly, the following databases need to be developed
and integrated.
I. Learners/Participants/Students
- Population
- Enrolment
- Class Organisation
II. Education Personnel
- Present Staff
-
Recruitment
- Staff Development
III. Curriculum
- Development
- Implementation
- Evaluation
IV.
Literacy Programmes
- Literacy and Post Literacy
Programmes
- Adult Education Programmes
- Distance
Learning Programmes
V. Physical Facilities
-
Existing Facilities
VI. Finance
VII. Legislation,
Organisation and Administration
Use of Data
Bases
The databases so
generated can be used to convert information into a
variety of indicators which would help planners/project
functionaries to take quick decisions. This can also be
done through graphic presentation including those of
geographical maps. When the databases grow, the same can
be used to judge the progress of programme with
particular reference to:
·
Literacy/literates/illiterates
· Out-of-school
children, clientele population
· Number of literacy
centers
· Number of learners/enrolment
· Drop-out
rates over a period of time
· Institutions/teachers
· Average daily attendance
· Number of
districts/blocks according to literacy levels
·
Information on teaching-learning material.
So far as the periodicity of different databases under
MIS is concerned, it will vary from item to item and
objectives behind it. It may be on regular
(annual/quarterly/monthly), ad-hoc and sample basis
which can be collected from a variety of sources and be
grouped under different headings, such as, details of
centre, teacher/instructor, supervisor, equipment and
learning material, salary of teachers, learners, project
office, media, and community support. Even, initially
when a village is selected under the programme/project,
a household survey needs to be conducted in order to get
first hand information on education and related areas
which can also generate consolidated position at
different levels.
Networking of Computers
The above MIS can be developed with
computers or even without computers. Use of computers
would naturally produce more reliable and timely
information. The other important aspect of MIS is flow
of information and level at which it is needed for
monitoring of the programme. This can be in accordance
to funds available and objectives of the programme.
Computerisation of data at the local level i.e. village
may be easy so as to feed the information but provision
of computers to all the projects may not be feasible or
even proper personnel who can handle computers may
itself not available. However, once the information is
collected at the local level, the same can be initially
computerised at the block level which would in turn
disseminate aggregate information at the block,
district and national level. More specifically
computerised MIS has following additional features (DISNIC,
1990 & Directorate of Adult Education, 1989) :
- data to be processed are primarily quantitative in
nature
- the volume of data to be handled and stored
is massive
- fast and easy retrieval
- massive
storage in compact form
- it facilitates tremendously
the search, sorting and retrieval of specific
information
- accuracy and uniformity of output
and
- increases information flow.
If the resources are limited, the best way of sharing
them is through networking of computers. The precise
information available at different places cannot only be
accessed but can also be manipulated under the
networking. When two or more computers (or a group of
computers) and computer devices are linked together on
transmission lines so that information and resources can
be shared is known as networking. Networking links
people to people and people to information which they
seek. Dot matrix/laser printers, memory, RAM, programmes
and databases are some of the computer devices which can
be shared efficiently under the networking. Telephones
is generally used as a mode of transmission between two
or more computers. Networking can be established with in
an organisation or between two or more organisations may
be situated at distant places through communication
lines. The computers under networking have their own
processing capabilities (Central Processing Unit) and
they share resources through the `Host Computer' (File
Server) which over-all monitors the networking. The host
computer may be a `dedicated' or a `non-dedicated'
terminal. A computer is known to be dedicated, if it
only control the network and cannot be used as a
terminal. On the other hand, non-dedicated host computer
can be used when it is not in the supervisory mode.
Different computers under the network are known as
`modes/working stations'. A node may or may not has
local hard-disk but it has its own processing
capability, that is why it is also known as `intelligent
terminal'. On the other hand a computer without
processing capability and without memory is termed as
`dumb terminal' which is used only for entering data or
viewing output. The dumb terminal has a direct
communication link with the host computer. If the
intelligent terminal has memory, it can also be used as
standalone terminals.
A number of
networks both under `Local Area Network' (LAN) and
`Wider Area Networks' (WAN) are in operation throughout
the world. Arrangement of computers under networking is
known as `topology', hence networking has different
topologies. BUS, RING and STAR are some of the commonly
used topologies under Local Area Network (LAN). Under
LAN, two or more computers are connected directly by a
cable either in a room, building, between buildings, a
group of offices, colleges, campus etc.. LAN reduces
hardware cost, shares software, data files and
peripheral devices listed above. In the BUS topology,
computers are connected through single two directional
communication wire whereas they are connected in a
ring/circle in RING topology. In the STAR topology,
several computers are connected to central computer. All
of these topologies have advantages and disadvantages
too but BUS topology is commonly used topology under
LAN.
Under Wide Area Network
(WAN), two or more computers at two distant places are
linked by either telephone lines or by microwave
relays/satellites. WAN not only facilitate sharing of
resources and databases but it also facilitate sharing
of ideas which can improve productivity and creativity
of users. WAN has a wide range of applications. Air,
train and hotel reservations are all done through WAN.
Educational Networks and Electronic-mail are some of the
other applications of WAN which are being utilised
throughout the world by more than 20 million users
linked to about 2 million host computers. Electronic
mail which is popularly known as `E-Mail' is the
computerised version of surface mail, but it is much
faster and more reliable than any other mode of
communication. Each user has an electronic mail box on
the host computer on which others can leave messages for
later reading. These messages wait till the receiver has
the opportunity to read to which the user can respond
later according to his own convenience. Through WAN, a
user can log-in to a distant mainframe/mini or a super
computer and can use programmes and share databases
which are otherwise very expensive and out of reach of
common users. The faculty members, researchers, students
and administrators at different places can communicate,
share ideas and resources and work jointly on problems
and projects. Even, an article can be drafted in one
location and the same can be reviewed, corrected and
commented on in another location, all in the same day.
All this can be done through a PC, a tele-communication
line and a modem.
Computers do not
speak the same language as that of telephones. Computer
produces `digital' signals (`1' and `0') or electrical
pulses whereas telephone lines transmitted human voice
in the form of continuous `analog' signals. Thus both
i.e. digital to analog and analog to digital signals
need to be converted which is possible through a
hardware device, namely, MODEM (MOdulate/[1]DEModulate)
which codes and decodes messages. The speed of
transmission through Modem is measured in `Bits Per
Second' (BPS). If the speed of a modem is high, data
transmission would take place at a faster speed which
means less communication time on telephone. Modems can
be installed either internally on the circuit board
itself or externally on a serial port (9-pins) of the
terminal.
On Line Processing
Before the development of PCs, hardwares were very
expensive, hence the computer time was very precious. It
was a practice to supply data in groups or batches to
computer in order to save computer time which was
possible through input/output devices i.e. card reader.
The batch processing minimizes computer time at the cost
of accessibility to information. Thus, there is a time
lag in between data collection and processing. This type
of processing of data is known as off-line processing.
But, with the introduction of PCs, the whole scenario
has changed. Managers and management demand data to be
processed immediately. On-line systems have the
capability of processing almost immediately and access
to information is very rapid. Any change in the data are
immediately reflected in the system files. That is why
data generated through `queries' are accurate, reliable
and up-to-date.
Setting up of MIS : Some
Critical Issues
In order to establish MIS, the
first step is to develop a complete plan of action which
needs listing and sequencing of various activities in a
logical order. Activity chart helps in timely
development and implementation of MIS. The different
activities may relate to preparatory work, information
collection, dissemination and feedback, hardwares and
softwares, training need of staff etc.. Development of
Data Capture Formats (DCF), periodicity, flow of
information, dissemination and feedback are some of the
important areas which need to be tackled carefully. In
case of developing a computerised MIS on literacy,
details of networking of computers at different levels
need to be planned seriously. Acquisition of both
adequate hardwares and appropriate softwares at
different levels need to be planned and made available
in time. Establishing networking through telephone lines
would facilitate rapid sharing of databases and
information. At the local level, the MIS so developed
would become a tool of decision support system. Through
networking, on-line data processing can be carried out
for which selection of information (to flow) plays an
important role. All the data and information generated
at the local level need not be transmitted to higher
levels but only selected information for proper
monitoring of programme be supplied to the higher and
the highest level which should be identified before the
software is developed. If need be, any part of the MIS
can be made accessible to any level. Otherwise, if the
entire databases are passed on to the higher levels, it
may adversely affect processing and managing databases
would be a difficult task. It has been observed that a
huge amount of information is being collected under the
present system but only part of it is disseminated at
local level where decisions are taken. Thus, there is
need to carefully develop dissemination plan which may
also include a series of publications/documents.
Periodicity and coverage of such publications should be
in accordance with the need of researchers,
administrators and policy makers working at different
levels.
One of the important
drawbacks, in most of the existing MISs is lack of
coordination between different institutions engaged in
the activities related to databases/information. Thus,
there is a need to establish networking of these
institutions which will ensure smooth collection of
information at all levels. Development of software is
not an easy task which needs careful selection of
databases and their inter-relationships. Software so
developed should be user friendly and menu driven and be
provided with on-line help which should be supplemented
by a well documented user manual. Therefore, care should
be taken, while selecting software development agency
and preference should be given to those who has past
experience of developing such softwares especially in
the field of education. Training on use of hardwares and
softwares is an important component of the whole
exercise. Complete plan of training with respect to
number of programmes to be conducted, duration of
programmes, clientele group, teaching/learning material,
identification of resource persons etc. needs to be
carefully developed and implemented. The staff
identified for MIS work and those who coordinate it at
different level should be given proper training,
responsibility of which can be given to the agency which
develop software. Even adequate skilled staff who can
handle computers may not be available especially at the
lower level but the same can be trained and put on the
job. Re-orientation training courses should also be
planned on regular intervals. Feasibility of network
establishment should be linked to the funds available
for acquisition of hardwares and softwares. Keeping in
view a large number of lower units (village/centre or
even block), initially it may not be possible to provide
computers at all levels but the same can be done in a
phased manner. Even, private business houses, who are in
the computer field, can be approcahed to arrange
computers on rent basis (or free) which is successfully
experimented in other countries. Maintenance of
hardwares in rural areas may be a problem and there
would be a time-lag between the complaint lodged and
complaint attained. Continuous supply of electricity
should be ensured for which uninterrupted power
suppliers (UPS) may need to be initially installed at
least at the level where consolidation is planned. Some
of the activities are listed below. The list is only
suggestive one and many more activities can be added to
this list.
I. Preparatory Activities
· Awareness Campaign : Need of MIS/ computerised MIS
· Legislation to enable information systems to operate
efficiently and effectively
· Networking of
educational institutions engaged in information
collection activities
· Coordinating agencies at
different level
· Over-all coordinating/nodal agency
· Budgeting of project and sources of funds
II.
Information Collection, Dissemination and Feedback
·
Listing of different activities and their logical
sequence
· Development of Data Capture Formats (DCF):
Village/Centre/Supervisor/Project(TLC)/Teacher
·
Printing and distribution of DCF
· Data collection
agency
· Collection of filled up DCF at different
levels
· Periodicity of DCFs at different levels
·
Logical sequence of collecting information from Village/
· Centre/Supervisor with periodicity
· Dissemination
of information and planning for publication of
·
documents
· Generation of reports: monthly/quarterly
at different levels
· Feedback system
· Complete
planning of establishment of Networking
III.
Hardwares
· Details of hardwares configuration
·
Acquisition of Hardware at different levels :
terminal,printer, modem, telephone line etc. and supply
of stationery on regular basis
· Arrangement of
maintenance of computers
IV. Softwares
·
Development of Software on MIS on literacy: Government
/Non-Government Agency
· Acquisition of other
softwares/operating system
· Coding Plans
·
Details of databases to be covered under MIS
·
Demonstration of Softwares
· Development of Manual
IV. Training
· Identification of staff
requirements
· Recruitment planning : existing
staff/new recruitment
· Training on computer
hardware/software, information
· system (MIS), MIS
software
· Training agency, number of programmes,
duration, time schedule, objectives, periodicity and
identification of
· resource persons and
·
Development of training material and reproduction and
distribution.
References
· APPEAL Manual of
Planning and Management of Literacy and Continuing
Education[1] (Four Volumes), UNESCO PROAP, Bangkok,
1994.
· Computerised Adult Literacy Information
System[1], Directorate of Adult Education, Government
of India, New Delhi, 1989.
· District Information
System of National Informatics Centre[1], Planning
Commission, Government of India, New Delhi, 1990.
·
Mehta, Arun C. (1993), `Education For All in India
-Myth and Reality'[1], Journal of Education and Social
Change, Vol.VI, No.3, IIE, Pune.
· Mehta, Arun C.
(1995), `Development and Utilisation of Database for
Non-formal Literacy Programme' and `Networking of
Computers'[1], papers presented in `Workshop for
Developing Literacy Resource Centre for Girls and Women
in Bangladesh' held at Dhaka, Bangladesh during August
21-30, 1995, (Mimeographed).
· Mehta, Arun C.
(1996), `Education for All: Some Recent Insights in the
Light of National Family Health Survey'[1], NIEPA, New
Delhi (Mimeographed), January.
Note: The
article was written in 1995, because of the Information
Technology, many of the issues raised have become
irrelevant.