2. SCOPE
An attempt has been made
in the present article to review the progress made with regard to different
components of Education for
All (EFA), such as,
Early Childhood Care and Education,
Elementary Education and
Adult Literacy and Continuing Education programmes. However, the focus of the article is on elementary education. The
World Conference on EFA was held recently
in Senegal (April 2000) and the previous one at Jomtien in 1990. Therefore an
attempt has also been made to review the progress made between 1990 & 2000.
Within the elementary education, different components such as, universal
enrolment, access, retention and quality of education have been critically
analyzed.
By using the secondary data, a set of
indicators is developed and analyzed. The analysis is confined to all-India
level, however wherever necessary, state-specific situation is also analyzed.
First the composition of school education across the states is presented. Some
of the indicators that are developed and analyzed are literacy rates,
habitations covered by schooling facilities, enrolment rates, attendance rates,
transition rates, percentage of female teachers, average number of teachers in
schools, trained teachers, facilities available in schools, pupil-teacher ratio,
ratio of primary to upper primary schools and indicators of internal efficiency
of education system. In addition, out-of-school children and additional
enrolment that would be required to achieve the goal of universal enrolment is
also worked-out.
Further, the article also takes a view of the recent enrolment projection
exercises and attempts to redefine the concept of universal elementary
education. The government has initiated a number of programmes under the
Centrally Sponsored Schemes to achieve the goal of EFA in general and UEE in
particular; all that are briefly discussed in the paper with regard to
achievements made so far.
3. DATA SOURCES
The Indian education system is perhaps the largest system in the world catering
the need of more than 190 million students of different socio-economic
background in pre-primary to primary, upper primary, secondary and higher
secondary to college and university level. Keeping in view the size of the
system, it is bound to have certain limitations, which can be grouped under
administrative and non-administrative problems. Data gaps, time-lag in data, inadequate, untrained and
unqualified staff, lack of equipments and understanding of definitions and
concepts of educational terms, poor dissemination, feedback and utilization of
data, etc. are some of the major limitations in the existing information system.
However, reliability of data remained the major cause of concern of the data
users (Mehta, 1996). In the recent past efforts have been made to strengthen
information system among which the development of computerized information
system under the centrally sponsored District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) is the most prominent and
sincere one.
In the present article, information generated by the government and
semi-governmental agencies have been used to assess the status of
Universalisation of Elementary Education.
The Department of Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development is
the official agency that is responsible for collection and dissemination of
educational data on annual basis. In addition, the
National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) and
National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO)
also occasionally collect information on educational variables through sample
surveys. Generally, private unrecognized educational institutions that are large
in number are not included in the official collection of statistics.
In some locations, especially in urban areas, such institutions are large in
number. A recent survey conducted in one of the states revealed that private
unrecognized schools (primary) constitute 25-30 per cent of the total enrolment
in recognized institutions.
4. LITERACY SCENARIO
A little less than 50 per cent of the total population in 1991 was illiterate
but since than the country has made considerable progress both in terms of total
(7+ population) and adult literacy (15+) rates. Since the latest census based on
complete enumeration was conducted in 1991, beyond that year literacy statistics
in India is not available. However, the same on household sample basis is
available from a semi-government organization, namely the
National Sample Survey Organization. The literacy rate (7+ Population)
increased from 52 per cent in 1991 to 62 per cent in 1998, thus showing an
impressive increase of 10 percentage points in a short period of about seven
years.
However, no significant improvement is noticed in male/female
differential in literacy rate, which has declined from 25 to 23 per cent during
the same period. It may however be noted that during 1991 to 1998, the increase
in female literacy (11 per cent) was higher than the increase in male literacy
(9 per cent). In addition, many
states have lower literacy rates than at the all-India level and among weaker
sections (SC, 37 and ST, 30 per cent), it is very poor.
The rural/urban distribution of literacy
rates reveal that increase was higher in rural areas than in urban areas and the
difference was of the tune of four percentage points. The rural/urban
differential in literacy during the period 1991 to 1998 declined from 28 to 24
per cent but the male/female differential in rural areas continues to be
significantly high at 25 percentage points. Despite all these significant
achievements, a large number of people in rural areas are still illiterate (44
per cent) compared to which only 20 per cent urban population is illiterate. Not
only the literacy rates improved significantly but also the number of
illiterates declined considerably during the period 1991 to 1998 and is expected
to further decline by the year 2001 (MHRD, 2000d). From 329 million illiterates
(7+ population) in 1991, it has declined to 294 million in 1998 and is further
likely to decline to 258 million in the year 2001.
Following the general pattern, the adult
literacy rate (15+ population) also increased significantly from 49 per cent in
1991 to 57 per cent in 1998, thus showing an increase of 8 percentage points in
a short span of about seven years. However, male/female differential in literacy
remained high at 27 percentage points, which shows that, both the male and
female literacy rates between 1991 and 1998 have increased by equal percentage
points. Unless all the females are made literate, the goal of universal literacy
will continue to remain a distant dream. The other major concern is that many of
the literates are simply literate and have not completed formal schooling. The NSSO data for year 1995-96 reveals that about 10 per cent
of the total literates (15+ Population) are either literate without formal
schooling or below primary level. About 28 per cent of the total literates have completed either primary or upper
primary schooling. The rest of the
literates have completed other higher levels of education.
The significant improvement in literacy rates during 1991 to 1998 is because of
the measures that have been initiated during this period.
The literacy programmes in India are managed by the
National Literacy Mission (NLM) launched in 1992 with an aim to make 100
million literates of the age group 15-35 years by the turn of the century i.e.
1999. Based on the Ernakulam experience in mobilizing society in the affairs of
literacy programs, the NLM launched Total
Literacy Campaigns in a large number of districts. Since then a number of districts have
become total literate districts. The achievement is also because of the fact
that during 1990's, a number of innovative projects and programmes were
initiated, which is quite visible in enrolment and drop out trends analyzed in
the subsequent sections.
5.
EARLY CHILDHOOD CARE AND
EDUCATION (ECCE) PROGRAMMES
The National Policy on Education (1987 & 1992) recommended
strengthening of ECCE programme as an essential component of human development
and UEE. Only a limited statistics is available on ECCE related programmes and
whatever is available from the official sources is total number of pre-primary
(recognized) centers and their enrolment. In fact, a large number of
unrecognized centers are also engaged in ECCE related activities. The
Integrated Child Development Service
(ICDS) is one of the major programmes under ECCE. The scheme is funded by the
Central Government and children below age ‘6’ are its clientele. Since the
health input at lower ages is more as compared to the educational input, the
ICDS and the Anganwadis/Balwadis is considered more as
welfare activity and is part of the activities performed by the Welfare
Department and not under the Department of Education (Thakur & Mehta,
1999). Since its inception, the ICDS has covered all the community development
blocks (5,320) of the country. More than 11 million children of age group 3-6
years were enrolled in these centers most of which are from the disadvantage
section of the society. A perusal of Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) during the period 1990 to 1998 reveals
that the same has increased from 10 per cent in 1990 to about 17 per cent in
1998. But a few of the 32 States & UTs have GER even less than 10 per cent.
However, it may be noted that ECCE programmes are not a pre-requisite condition
for obtaining admission in Grade I. Further, it is noticed that the boys/girls
differential in GER is almost negligible both at the state and all-India level.
6.
ELEMENTARY EDUCATION
6.1
SCHOOL STRUCTURE
As mentioned above that free and compulsory education to all children up to the
age fourteen is constitutional commitment. In 1993, the Supreme Court of India
declared education up to fourteen years of age to be a fundamental right of
children in India. The entire school education can be divided in to four parts,
namely, primary, upper primary, secondary and higher secondary levels. The
National Policy of Education (1968 & 1986) and its revised formulation (1992)
envisaged a uniform pattern of school education (10+2 pattern, 12 years of
schooling) across the states. Since education is on the concurrent list, i.e.
state subject; the States & UTs are free to evolve their own pattern of school
education. Eight years of primary education is envisaged in two stages: a junior
stage covering a period of five years and a senior stage covering a period of 3
years. It needs to be mentioned that 8 years of compulsory education was
envisaged as one integrated unit, although there were two stages in the cycle.
Hence elementary education became the compulsory component of education in India
(Varghese and Mehta, 1999a). It is this compulsory stage that has been
incorporated as a directive principle in the constitution in 1950. The official
age (entry) to obtain admission in Grade I is 6 years but a few States & UTs
have 5 years as entry-age. The Government has recently decided to
re-introduce the Constitutional Amendment Bill, which will make elementary
education a fundamental right. This will be implemented as a part of the
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan. It may however be
noted that about 10-12 states have already made elementary education compulsory.
But the situation in most of these states is not different than other states
with regards to enrolment and retention.
The Table 4 shows that in twelve states primary education consists of Grades I
to IV where as in rest of the states it is Grades I to V. The National Policy
advocates Grade I to V at the primary and VI to VIII at the upper primary level
of education. The states that have adopted Grades I to IV as its composition of
primary level generally have grades V to VII as part of the upper primary
education. Like elementary education, the secondary level of education has also
got divergent composition across the states. While in 19 States & UTs, secondary
stage consists of Grades IX and X; it consists of Grades VIII, IX and X in
thirteen States & UTs (EFA the Year 2000 Assessment, Country Report: India). However, it
may be noted that within a state, a complete uniformity is in existence but the
type of institutions that offer school education (management) vary across the
states and even within its districts and blocks. Different type of institutions
that are in existence are schools run by government management, schools under
the local bodies and private managed schools. The private managed schools can
further be divided into private aided and unaided schools. In addition, private
unrecognized institutions spread over across the country both in rural and urban
areas are also in existence in large number.
6.2 UNIVERSAL ACCESS
Availability of schooling facilities is
measured by a set of indicators concerning to access. As per norms, a habitation
is entitled to have a primary school, if it has a total population of 300 & more
and has no school within a distance of one kilometre. For upper primary schools,
the corresponding norm is total population of 500 & more and a distance of three
kilometres. However, the norm is often relaxed in case of hilly and tribal
dominated areas, difficult terrains and border districts. A distance of one and
three kilometre is treated as the maximum walking distance to which a child is
expected to travel from his residence to school. The states have their own norms
according to which they provide schooling facilities. Micro planning and school
mapping related activities play an important role in making provision for
schools and also deciding location where a school is to be opened. Efforts have
been made in the recent past to conduct micro planning and school mapping
exercises under the DPEP and Lok Jumbish
Project. First let us have a look on growth in number of schools in India.
(a) Number of Schools
There has been substantial expansion of primary
and upper primary schools in the country.
Growth of upper primary schools is influenced by the expansion of primary
education in India. The number of primary schools in India increased from 210
thousand in 1950-51 to 627 thousand in 1998-99, thus showing an average annual
growth of 2.30 per cent per annum. During the same period, upper primary schools increased from 14 thousand to 190
thousand, a growth of 5.58 per cent per annum. In other words, primary schools
registered an increase of almost three-fold while upper primary schools
increased by fourteen times during the period 1950-51 to 1998-99. Although it
may look very impressive when compared to primary schools, it needs to be noted
that the base of upper primary education was too narrow in 1950-51 when compared
to that at the primary level (Table
5). During 1990-98, about 65.8 thousand primary schools were opened against 38.7
thousand upper primary schools.
The trends in growth of primary schools further
reveal that the rates of growth were higher during the initial decades following
independence and they continuously declined thereafter.
The average annual growth in number of primary schools at the all-India level
has considerably declined from 3.5 per cent during the period from 1955-56 to
1960-61 to 1.4 per cent during the period from 1980-81 to 1995-96 and further to
1.3 per cent during the period from 1990-91 to 1995-96 (Varghese and Mehta,
1999a). The compound growth rates in number of upper primary schools reveal that
in the initial period (1955-56 to 1960-61) the growth rate was as high as 18.0
per cent, which is also the highest throughout the period from 1955-56 to
1995-96. The growth rates showed a
decline from the sixties reaching a figure of 2.5 per cent during the period
from 1990-91 to 1995-96. Although
the growth rates declined, these low growth rates of upper primary schools are
still substantially higher than the corresponding growth rates in primary
schools. An analysis of
state-specific growth rates reveal that during the most recent period i.e. from
1990-91 to 1995-96, barring a few exceptions they were positives. The state like
Bihar where both literacy rates and participation of children in education are
low, the growth rate in the number of schools is also noticed to be low both at
the primary and upper primary levels.
Uttar Pradesh experienced a negative growth rate in the number of upper primary
schools. These low and negative growth rates in these two states is a matter of
concern to universalize elementary education because these two are highly
populous states and influence the all-India figures significantly. Kerala, one of the most educationally
advanced states of the country, experienced a very low growth rate, throughout
the period during 1980-81 to 1995-96. This is explicable because the state has
almost achieved the goal of universal enrolment. In fact, due to declining child
population many primary schools in Kerala are being closed down. A clearer picture about availability of
school will emerge when ratio of primary to upper primary schools is analyzed,
which is presented below. The ratio can be treated an indicator of access
conditions or the spread of facilities for upper primary education.
(b)
Ratio of Primary to Upper Primary Schools
The ratio of primary to upper primary
schools during the period from 1950-51 to 1998-99 at the all-India level (Table
5) reveals that the ratio has considerably improved from 1:15.4 in 1950-51 to
1:6.7 in 1960-61. It showed a declining trend thereafter and it stabilized at
around 1:3.3. The improvement in
the ratios over a period of time indicates that the overall situation changed
for the better. The Programme of Action
(1992) also envisaged an upper primary school for every two primary schools. The
trend shows that the expansion of primary education has exerted considerable
pressure on upper primary education system to expand and the government has
responded positively by providing larger number of schools and school places for
children who are completing primary level of education. In addition, there may
be a few non-formal education centres and unrecognized schools; also that impart
both primary as well as upper primary education.
The state-specific ratios are presented
in Table 8 that shows that states have divergent positions with regard to
provision of upper primary schooling facilities. On the one-hand states, such as,
Chandigarh, Maharashtra, Kerala, Mizoram and Rajasthan, have almost provided an
upper primary schools for every two primary schools they have. On the other hand
a few states, namely Goa, Haryana, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal etc.
have a high ratio, which means that they are yet to provide a large number of
upper primary schools so that the ratio is improved near to 1:2. Despite all the impressive achievements
there may still be a few habitations that may not have access to primary and
upper primary schooling facilities within the specified norms. An analysis of
indicators of access will throw more light on access conditions in the country,
which is presented below.
(c) Habitations Accessed to
Schooling Facilities
Despite the increase in number of
habitations and population, both the percentage of habitations and rural
population served by primary and upper primary schools/sections within a
distance of 1 and 3 kms. has increased significantly over a period of time from
1965 to 1993. Of the total 1,061 thousand rural habitations in the country, 528
thousand (about 50 per cent) habitations had a primary school/section within the
habitation itself in 1993-94 (NCERT, 1998). On the other hand, about 83.4 per
cent habitations had a primary school/section within a distance of one kilometre,
against which about 177 thousand habitations, though eligible did not have
schooling facilities. The alternative and innovative programme envisages opening
alternative elementary centres in all these habitations. Many of the unserved
habitations are not entitled to have a school/section because of the population
norms. There were about 581 thousand habitations in 1993-94 that had a
population of 300 & more of which more than 40 thousand habitations (7 per cent)
did not have access to schooling facilities within a distance of 1 km. It may be
noted that the number of unserved habitations in 1986-87 (population 300 & more)
was 142 thousand (26.76 per cent).
On
the other hand, as many as 808 thousand habitations (76.15 per cent) providing
access to about 85 per cent population in 1993-94 had upper primary schooling
facilities within a distance of three kilometres. However, when schooling
facilities in terms of number of habitations having population of 500 & more is
analyzed; one notices that only 474 thousand (71.60 per cent) habitations had
facilities within a distance of three kilometres. This shows that about 65
thousand habitations did not have access to an upper primary school/section but
were otherwise entitled to have the same as per the norms.
The aggregate data further indicates that the number of habitations
having access to upper primary schools/sections declines with the decline in
population size of habitation, which is quite similar to the situation at the
primary level. On the other hand, a good number of habitations (474 thousand)
who had population below 500 in 1993-94 had schooling facilities within a
distance of three kilometres of which about 26 thousand had the facilities even
within the habitation. But the percentage population to which they serve is only
5.40 per cent of the total population in that slab.
It may
also be noted that most of the educationally backward states still have a large
number of unserved habitations. Except Sikkim, Tripura and Andaman & Nicobar
Islands, all other States & UTs have more than 90 per cent habitations accessed
to a primary school/section within a distance of one kilometre. Daman & Diu and
Lakshadweep are the only two UTs in the country that have provided a
primary and upper primary
school/section to all of its habitations within a distance of one and three
kilometres (Table 8). Except Orissa,
educationally backward states had a lower percentage of habitations
having
access to a upper primary school/section within a distance of three kilometres.
In general, it has been observed that the states that had a lower
percentage of habitations
served by a primary school/section also had a lower percentage of upper primary
schools/sections.
(d) Rural Population having Access to
Educational Facilities
In
1986-87, more than 95 per cent rural population had a primary school/section
within a distance of one kilometre compared to 94 per cent in 1993-94. The
corresponding figures at the upper primary level were 84 and 85 per cent.
Although the percentage during 1986-87 to 1993-94 remained almost stagnant but
is termed spectacular because of the massive increase in total number of
habitations during the same period. More than 65 thousand habitations were added during 1986 to 1993. The facilities
distributed according to different population slabs reveal that both the
percentages of habitations and rural population accessed to schools/sections
decline with the decline in the population size. It is only in Daman & Diu that
the entire rural population is accessed to an upper primary school/section
within a distance of three kilometres.
Among the major states, Andhra Pradesh (79.43 per cent), Madhya Pradesh (72.60
per cent), Rajasthan (79.00 per cent) and Uttar Pradesh (82.09 per cent) had a
lower percentage of population served by upper primary schooling facilities than
at the all-India level (Mehta, 1999).
(e) Unserved Habitations and
NFE Centres
The unserved habitations may have a
non-formal education center or even unrecognized institutions. At the all-India
level, only 6 per cent of the total unserved habitations (within one kilometre)
with 9 per cent population had a non-formal education centre in 1993-94.
Of the total 121 thousand primary and upper primary centres in 1993-94, 94.52
per cent were in rural areas and the remaining 5.48 per cent centres were in the
urban areas. A good number of centres are being run by the Voluntary Agencies.
The average size of a non-formal education (primary) centre in 1993-94 was about
27 learners. There were about 4,553 primary and 128 upper primary centres that
respectively had an average enrolment of 26 and 36 learners but did not have an
instructor. On the other hand, there were about 729 primary and 22 upper primary
centres that had at least one instructor but did not have a learner.
In addition, there were a few upper primary centres (18) that had more than two
instructors but did not have a learner, thus indicating a lot of wastage and
lack of seriousness in implementing the programme. The percentage of learners in
the Government run centres (primary and upper primary) to total elementary
enrolment (Grades I-VIII) in 1993-94 indicates that it was as small as 2.54 and
2.33 per cent respectively in case of girls and total enrolment. The coverage of
unserved habitations and enrolment in NFE centres suggests that the objective of
non-formal system has not been realized in providing alternative facilities to
areas where out-of-school children concentrate and schooling facilities are not
available. It may be interesting to
note that a little less than 50 per cent of the total villages in the country
had both the unrecognized primary and upper primary schools.
6.3
FACILITIES IN SCHOOLS
Provision of schools does not guarantee availability of necessary facilities in
schools, which is reflected in statistics presented in Table 9.
Over a period of time, facilities in schools have improved significantly
but still a large number of primary schools do not have adequate facilities that
are required for smooth functioning of a school. Both the Central and State
Governments had initiated a number of programmes to improve facilities, one such
programme is the Operation Blackboard
Scheme.
A
perusal of Table 9 reveals that of the total 0.57 million primary schools in
1993-94, only 65.01 per cent had pucca (permanent) buildings. The rest of
the schools had either partially permanent buildings or were functioning in open
space or even in tents (4.20 percent, 24 thousand schools). Of the total
building-less schools, government schools constitute more than 65 per cent,
whereas schools managed by private organizations do not have any such school. On
the other hand only a few upper primary schools in 1993-94 were functioning in
open space/tents (2,966). Even if a school has building that need not guarantee
that it has got adequate number of instructional rooms. Most of the primary
schools on an average had 2 instructional rooms, which is less than the total
number of grades/sections a school has got. But there are several schools, which
had more than even 10 rooms.
On the other hand an upper primary school on an average had four rooms.
Further, it has been noticed that the majority of primary schools did not have
ancillary facilities in 1993-94. The drinking water facility was available in
only 44.23 per cent primary schools against which 18.93 per cent had urinal
facility in school. Further, it is noticed that government run schools had poor
facilities than in schools managed by the private organizations. Even if the schools have necessary
infrastructure that itself is not a guarantee that it has also got adequate
number of teachers. Therefore the growth in number of teachers, pupil-teacher
ratio and average number of teachers in a school is critically analyzed below.
6.4 GROWTH IN NUMBER OF TEACHERS
The growth in number of primary teachers during
the period 1950-51 to 1998-99 shows (Table 10) that it has increased from a low
538 thousand in 1950-51 to 1,904 thousand in 1998-99, thus showing an increase
of more than 3.5 times. During the same period, upper primary teachers increased
from 86 thousand to 1,278 thousand, which is fifteen times more than the total
teachers in 1950-51. During 1990-98, primary and upper primary teachers
increased respectively by 288 and 205 thousand. Despite the significant
achievements still a large number of teachers' positions in a number of states
are lying vacant mostly because of the court cases. Without diluting the
academic qualifications states, such as, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh
have appointed para teachers. The qualification requirement to become a primary or
upper primary school teacher is generally 10 years of general education followed
by one or two years of pre-service training. However, in the recent past many
states have increased qualification requirements for elementary school teachers
and pre-service training is also not a pre condition. Once the teachers are
appointed, they are imparted in-service training duration of which vary from
state to state. Teachers are generally appointed for the elementary level and
then they are deployed either in primary or upper primary school.
Over time, the number of
female teachers (Table 11) has also increased impressively but their share
remained lower than their counterparts' male teachers. In terms of percentage,
female teachers increased from 15.24 and 15.12 per cent in 1950-51 to 34.56 to
36.31 percent in 1998-99 respectively at the primary and upper primary level of
education. The impressive improvement in number of teachers is also reflected in
average number of teachers in a primary and upper primary school, which was
about 3 and 7 in 1993-94. In
addition, there may be a large number of single teacher primary schools but it
is not reflected in the aggregate data presented above. The number of teachers
in primary schools suggests that teachers are involved in multi-grade teaching
but the same is not true in case of upper primary teachers. Further, it may also
be noticed that barring northeastern states, most of the teachers both at the
primary and upper primary levels of education are trained.
The state-specific pupil-teacher ratio, average number of teachers in a school
and percentage of female teachers are presented in Table 11, which shows that
states have divergent positions. However, it may be noted that Bihar, an educationally backward state has the
highest pupil-teacher ratio both at the primary (63:1) and upper primary (49:1)
level. The percentage of female teacher in the
state is also dismally lowest at 19 (primary) and 23 (upper primary) per cent.
More than 40 thousand positions of teachers in the state are lying vacant for
last many years. The situation in
other backward states (Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal)
is also not encouraging. In one of
the educationally most advanced state, Kerala, the pupil-teacher ratio (primary) in 1998-99 was lowest (among
major states) at 29:1; the percentage of female teachers at 70 (primary) and 66
(upper primary) and also it has got a very high average number of teachers, 8
(primary) and 18 (upper primary).
6.5
UNIVERSAL ENROLMENT
Since universal enrolment is the most
important component of UEE, a detailed analysis of growth of enrolment is
undertaken. In addition, out-of-school children and additional enrolment
required to achieve the goal of universal enrolment, is also estimated.
(a) Growth in Enrolment
Considerable progress has been made so
far as enrolment at primary and upper primary levels of education is concerned.
Enrolment at the primary level was 19.16 million in 1950-51; which has now been
increased to 110.9 million in 1998-99. Compared to primary level, the growth in
enrolment at the upper primary level is much impressive and substantial but is
not adequate to attain the status of universal enrolment. From a low 3.12
million enrolment in the year 1950-51, enrolment at the upper primary level
increased to 40.30 million in the year 1998-99 accounting for thirteen fold
increase as against six times at the primary level.
The impressive growth is attributed to comparatively a low enrolment base in the
initial year and consistent increase of girls’ participation in upper primary
education (Varghese & Mehta, 1999a)
It has also been noticed
that during the last forty-five years, the highest rates of growth have taken
place during the period 1960 to 1965.
Another interesting feature of the trend in growth of enrolment is the higher
rates of growth of enrolment of girls at all periods of time that we have
considered. Again, it has been noticed that after the period 1965 to
1970, the growth rates in all variables showed consistent decline. It has also been revealed that over a
period of time, enrolment, teachers and institutions have increased but at
different rates. During the previous
decade (1990-98), number of primary schools, teachers and enrolment increased at
an annual rate of 1.40, 2.07 and 1.64 per cent compared to 2.89, 2.21 and 2.15
per cent respectively at the upper primary level.
(b)
Share of Girls in Enrolment
The percentage share of girls to total enrolment
both at primary and upper primary levels of education have increased
considerably and consistently over a period of time from 1950-51 to 1998-99
(Table 13). However, girls share to the total enrolment at the upper primary
level (40.50 per cent) continues to be lower than their share at the primary
level
(43.50 per cent).
In 1950-51, the share of girl’s enrolment to
total enrolment was 28.13 and 16.13 per cent respectively at the primary
and upper primary levels of education (Table 13). In the next ten years, i.e. from 1950-51 to 1960-61, their
share increased to 32.57 and 24.32 per cent respectively at the primary and
upper primary levels, which has further been improved to 43.50 and 40.50 per
cent in the year 1998-99. This means that for every three boys there were at
least two girls in the system. Further, the state-specific percentage of girl’s enrolment at the upper primary
level reveals that a few states had considerably a higher percentage than the
all-India average. Kerala had almost equal participation of boys and girls in
the upper primary education. However, the major cause of concern is the
educationally backward states, which have a much lower percentage than the
all-India average. The
comparatively low participation of girls suggest that unless the primary system
is improved to a significant effect, the goal of universal enrolment may not be
realized in the near future. The
majority of out-of-school children also come from these states.
(c) Intake Rate
One of the important indicators that give
information on coverage of child population (age-6) is the intake rate. Both the
planners and policy makers are interested in this rate which is unless brought
to hundred, the goal of universal primary enrolment cannot be achieved. The
indicator considers enrolment in Grade I and population of age-6. The
Gross Intake Rate considers total enrolment of Grade I irrespective
of age whereas, enrolment in Grade I of age-6 is considered in
Net Intake Rate. But in India,
age-specific enrolment data is not available from the official sources. However,
the same is available from the information system created under the DPEP.
Based on this set of data, percentage of enrolment in Grade I of age-6 have been
worked out. Since the data was available only for twelve states, average of
these states was applied to remaining states to workout intake rates (Thakur &
Mehta, 1999). The results suggest that the percentage
of enrolment in Grade I of age-6 was highest in Tamil Nadu (76 per cent) and
lowest in Gujarat (35 per cent). At the all-India level, the
Gross Intake Rate in 1997-98 was 116 per
cent compared to the Net Intake Rate of 68 per cent. This indicates that as many
as 32 per cent of the total children aged-6 years were not enrolled in the
system. The boys/girls differential
in gross and net intake rate was of the tune of 21 and 13 percentage points.
Further, a few states have lower net intake rates than the all-India average.
All this suggests that rigorous efforts are needed to bring all unenrolled
children, especially girls under the umbrella of education system.
(d) Enrolment Ratio
A perusal of Table 14 reveals that
Gross Enrolment Ratio between the period 1950-51 and 1998-99 improved
significantly but the same is not adequate to attain the status of universal
enrolment, if overage and underage children are taken out from enrolment.
However, it may be noted that as we approach UPE, the percentage of over-age and
underage children, as well as the enrolment ratio (gross) will decline.
As against the GER of 100.1 and 62.1 per cent in 1990, the corresponding ratio
in 1998 was 92.14 and 57.58 per cent. The boys/girls differential in GER at the
primary and upper primary level declined significantly from 28 and 30 percentage
points in 1990-91 to 18 and 16 percentages points in 1998-99. The erratic trend
in GER is because of the projected population used in computing ratio.
Otherwise, a consistent trend is noticed in absolute enrolment both at the
primary and upper primary levels of education.
The Net Enrolment Ratio is considered an ideal indicator but the same is
not available from the official sources. However, recently as a part of EFA: The
Year 2000 Assessment, NER at primary level was estimated by assuming that
1993-94 percentage of overage and underage children will remain constant in
1997-98.
A perusal of Table 15 reveals a
significant gap between GER and NER at the primary level. The NER in case of
boys and girls in 1997-98 was as low as 78 and 64 per cent, which suggests that
boys/girls differential in NER to be of 14 percentage points. The overall NER at
the primary level was 71 per cent, which suggests that at least 29 per cent
children of the age group 6-11 were out-of-school in 1997-98. The educationally
backward states have lower NER than the all-India average of 71 per cent. An NER
of 71 per cent does not guarantee that all these children attend school
regularly. This can be known only if the average daily attendance is analyzed.
From the regular sources, it is not possible to obtain idea about children
attending schools. However, on household sample basis NSSO (52nd
Round) recently collected data on school attendance. It may be noted that
because of the difference in data collection methodology and years for which information is
available, different data sets i.e. MHRD, NCERT and NSSO are not comparable.
However, they give reasonably good indication regarding children attending
school. School, habitations and households are the unit of data collection
respectively in the MHRD, NCERT and NSSO set of data.
The Net Attendance Ratio in 1995-96 was
65 per cent against which the NER (primary, estimated) in 1997-98 was 71 per
cent (Table 15). Similarly, as against 43 per cent attendance ratio among the
children of age group 11-13 years, the corresponding GER was 58 per cent.
The slight deviation between the two estimates suggests that less number of
children attend schools than actually enrolled. The actual deviation may even be
higher than the one presented above because of the fact that NSSO data on
attendance includes all students irrespective of the management of school. This means that enrolment
in private unrecognized institutions are also included in the attendance ratio
but the same is not included in the official enrolment because unrecognized
schools do not form part of the regular collection of statistics. Since then,
attendance rates might have further been improved because of the
nutritious noon meal scheme, which was
initiated in 1995. The age-specific enrolment ratio suggests that it was 69 and
72 per cent respectively among the children of age groups 6-10 and 11-13 years.
It means that about 31 and 28 per cent children of the age groups 6-10 and 11-13
years do not attend schools. It may however be noted that age specific enrolment
ratio considers enrolment irrespective of grades which means that many of these
children (age groups 6-10 and 11-13 years) may not necessarily be in the primary
and/or upper primary grades.
The state-specific attendance ratio
suggests that many states are in a position to attain the status of UPE but the
same is not true in case of UEE. States such as, Assam, Gujarat,
Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu had very high net attendance ratio at
primary level in 1995-96 but the corresponding ratio at the upper primary level
is found very low. Many children those who attend school at present may not
retain and dropout from the system even before completion of an education cycle.
This severely affects the internal efficiency of
the education system. Therefore, indicators that give information
regarding efficiency of the education system are analyzed below.
(e) Universal Retention
The retention rates computed
during the period 1964-65 to 1998-99 (Table 16) reveals that both at the primary
and elementary levels of education, it has improved gradually.
At present the retention rates at the primary and elementary levels are
60 and 43 per cent respectively. This otherwise suggests a dropout rate of 40
and 57 per cent respectively at the primary and upper primary level. Further, it
has been noticed that throughout the period, the percentage of girls who
remained in the system (up to Grade V) was lower than the overall retention at
the all-India level. However, the
differences between girls and boys in retention are less than the difference
noticed between the two in enrolment. The boys/girls differential in retention
rate in 1998-99 continues to be about 3 and 6 per cent respectively at the
primary and elementary level of education.
At the primary level, Bihar, Rajasthan, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh etc.
had dropout rate higher than 50 per cent.
Whereas Goa, Kerala, Chandigarh, Delhi etc. had lower than 5 per cent
drop out in 1998-99. At the elementary level, it was as high as 77 per cent in
Bihar, 68 per cent in Orissa, 53 per cent in Uttar Pradesh and 74 per cent in
West Bengal. The boys/girls
differential in a few states is also significantly high.
Further, it may be noted that despite the policy
of no detention up to the Grade V, a large number of children used to repeat a
grade. However, boys/girls differential in repetition rate is almost negligible.
The repetition rate in 1993-94 was as high as 8, 6, 7, 6 and 6 per cent
respectively in Grades I, II, III, IV and V Table 17). This severely affects the
internal efficiency of the education system and because of this, children take
more years to become primary graduates than ideally required. The indicators of
efficiency are calculated on the basis of assumptions that 1993-94 rates of
repetition (Table 17) will remain constant throughout the evolution of cohort
and no student will allow to repeat more than 3 times in a grade. After 3
repetitions, the child would either promote to next grade or will dropout from
the system. The results reveal that boys take 7.2
years to become primary graduates against which girls are taking 8.0 years, thus
showing a lot of inefficiency in the system. Needless to mention that ideal
number of years a student should take to become a primary graduate is five
years. The state-specific results also suggest that not a single state is
exactly taking five years to produce a primary graduate (Table 18). In the states of Uttar Pradesh and West
Bengal, it was as high as 15 and 14 years. Input/Output ratio calculated for
measuring the efficiency of education system also supports this. The system at
the all-India level is found to be efficient to the tune of only 67 per cent,
thus indicating a lot of scope of improvement. The inefficiency in the system is
due to two reasons, namely high incidence of dropout and repetition. The
state-specific indicators of efficiency reveal that a few states have lower
level of efficiency even lower than the all-India average. Particularly, the states of Bihar, Uttar
Pradesh and West Bengal need immediate attention where the level of efficiency
is very low and graduates are taking more years than ideally required. Even if
students graduate primary level, there is no guarantee that they will transit to
upper primary level. This can be
known if transition from primary to upper primary level is analyzed which is
presented below.
(f) Transition Rate
The transition rate at the all-India level during
the period 1970-71 to 1991-92 and state level for the year 1991-92 is calculated
which is based upon the final set of the MHRD data produced in
Education in India. In addition, the same
for the year 1997-98 has also been calculated (without considering repeaters) on
the basis of provisional information produced in
Selected Educational Statistics. So far
as the computation of transition rate is concerned, the procedure followed is
that first the repeaters are taken out from enrolment in the first grade (V/VI)
of upper primary cycle which is then divided by the terminal grade of previous
cycle (IV/V), that is primary level (Varghese & Mehta, 1999a). However, from the
existing set of data, it is not possible to exactly know how many children
successfully complete Grade IV/V and then take admission in Grade V/VI the next
year. In a few states, transition rates are more than hundred, which is by
definition not possible unless a heavy in-migration is taken place.
A perusal of state-specific rates reveals that
transition from primary to upper primary level in 1991-92 (Table 20),
irrespective of states is noticed higher than 74 per cent (except
Sikkim and Dadra and Nagara Haveli). The educationally backward States had a mix
of high and very high transition rates.
The provisional rates for 1997-98 show that in case of two crucial states,
namely Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal, it has gone down considerably. In rest of
the states, an increasing trend in transition rates is generally noticed both in
case of boys and girls. Between upper primary grades, the transition is also
found to be high in four districts that were surveyed recently by Varghese and
Mehta (1999b). Kerala that had shown almost a consistent enrolment both in the
ratio and absolute form for the last more than 25 years also had a very high
transition rate for both boys and girls. The improving transition rates across
the states indicate more demand for upper primary education in years that
follow.
The transition rate at the All-India level reveals
that over a period of time, it has improved to a significant effect. This is
also reflected in boys/girls differential, which has considerably been declined
during the same period (Table 19). The transition rate from primary to upper
primary level, which was 82.56 per cent in 1970-71, improved to 84.58 per cent
in 1975-76 and further to 94.42 per cent in the year 1990-91 (Table 19 & 20).
However, during the following year, it has declined to 85 per cent but improved
again the next year (86 per cent). For the first time
in the recent past, transition rate for girls
in 1997-98 was higher than
boys by 2 percentage points. The results further reveal that about 14 percent
children, who were in Grade IV/V in 1997-98, dropped out from the system in
transition.
(g)
Out-Of-School Children
Out
of School children and additional enrolment that would be required to achieve
the goal of universal primary education by the year 2007 has been worked out. It
may be noted that under the Sarva Shiksha
Abhiyan, the goal of universal primary enrolment is to be achieved by the
year 2007.
First refined enrolment is obtained by taking out overage and underage children
from enrolment in Grades I-V in 1998.
The 1993-94 estimates of overage and underage children (sixth survey) are used
for this purpose. The difference of age specific population (6-11 Years) and
adjusted enrolment is termed as out-of-school children.
While computing additional enrolment, first enrolment required within the age
group 6-11 years in 2007 is obtained by subtracting out-of-school children (in
1998) from the projected population (6-11 years) in 2007. The projected population is obtained by extrapolation, which is based on the estimates provided
by the Office of the Registrar General of India
between 1991 and 2001. The
enrolment outside the age group 6-11 years is obtained by applying the
percentage of overage and underage children to the required enrolment within the
age group 6-11 years. Required
enrolment within and outside the age group is then added to obtain the net
additional requirement of enrolment in 2007.
The percentage of overage and underage
children at the primary level in 1993-94 was 21.15, 21.51 and 21.31 per cent
respectively in case of boys, girls and total enrolment. However, a few states have higher
percentages than the all-India average.
A
perusal of Table 21 reveals that as many as 33.06 million children of age-group
6-11 years were out-of-school in 1998 of which girls constitute 20.34 million
(61.52 per cent). The estimates
further suggest that of the total 33.06 million out-of-school children, more
than 17 million (48.94 per cent) come from the most educationally backward
states of Bihar (2.96 Million), Rajasthan (1.75 million), Uttar Pradesh (11.48
Million) and West Bengal (4.61 Million). The projected estimates of enrolment
suggest that 40.11 million children (including overage and underage) would be
additionally required to enroll in 2007 to achieve UPE. The corresponding
estimate for girls is 25.95 million, which is 64.70 per cent of the net
additional enrolment required in 2007. The additional enrolment will help to
estimate school places that would be
required in 2007. This will
also help in better implementation and effective monitoring of different
incentive schemes. The aggregated estimates are of limited
use. Unless the same is computed at least at the block level and out-of-school
children located, the benefits of new programmes and schemes are not likely to
reach them.
(h) Quality Of Education
The last but the most important component of UEE is the
Quality of Education that is measured in
India in terms of learner's achievement.
Even, the states that have almost attained universal access, enrolment
and retention, the quality of education is very poor. It is only in the recent
past (during 1990's) that quality of education has got attention of policy
makers. It may be noted that India
follows policy of no detention up to primary level i.e. IV/V. But in practice, divergent models are in
existence across states. Generally, at the end of primary cycle, examinations
are compulsory and promotion to next cycle is linked to children performance in
this examination.
It may however be noted that data on
learner's achievement is not available on regular basis. The official agency (Department
of Education, MHRD) does not collect data on this aspect except that it
disseminate statistics on examination results at secondary and plus-two levels.
It is only in the recent past (1994) that achievement tests were conducted under
the District Primary Education Programme
through the Baseline Assessment Surveys
(BAS). DPEP envisages improving learner's achievement by at least 25 percentage
points over the project
period ranging between 5-7 years. The non-DPEP states do not have this set of
data. However, the NPE (1986) had given emphasized to learners' achievement and
thereafter the Government of India specified the minimum levels of learning and
initiated 16 projects to improve the learner's achievement. Under the
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, it is expected that districts will conduct
Baseline Assessment Surveys to know status of student’s achievement both at
the primary and upper primary levels of education.
To monitor achievement levels, a
Mid Term Assessment Survey (MAS) was conducted by the NCERT in 1997 in 42
districts of 7 states where the first Baseline Assessment Survey was
conducted in 1994 (NCERT, 1998). One of the major objectives of MAS was to
measure average performance of students’ achievement on the newly developed
competency based achievement tests in language and mathematics at the end of
Grade I and at the end of Grade III/IV of primary level. The study covered
66,831 students, 6,221 teachers and 2,068 schools spread over 42 districts
across the seven states. The MAS results show improvement in average performance
of students in language as well as mathematics over 1994 to 1997 but still the
mean score across states is low and far below than the expectations (Box 1).
Box 1: Mid Term Assessment
Survey
The study has shown that the average
performance of students in Grade I in 25 districts in language and 24 districts
in mathematics has crossed 60 per cent level.
Except two districts in language and four in mathematics in the state of
Madhya Pradesh, all other districts have crossed 50 per cent level of
achievement in both the subjects in Grade I. While student performance in Grades
III/IV has touched 60 per cent marks in some districts, in some others it has
stood below 40 per cent mark. A
comparison of 1994 BAS and 1997 MAS has shown positive trends in 28 out of 42
districts in language with 19 districts showing statistically significant
improvement. In mathematics, 33 out of 42 districts have shown significant
improvement. The hike in achievement in language and mathematics varies widely
ranging from 1 per cent to 44 per cent for Grade I. Similar analysis of Grade
III/IV students’ achievement shows positive trends in 31 out of 42 districts in
language with 27 showing significant improvement and in 29 out of 42 in
mathematics with 23 showing significant improvement. The hike in achievement in
these grades varies from 10-25 per cent.
The goal of reducing the differences between gender groups to less than 5
per cent has been realized in almost all the districts across grades in both the
subjects
MHRD:
Annual Report, 1998-99.
(i) Future
Prospects and Redefining the Concept of UEE
The
analysis presented above reveals that at all levels of school education, a
significant progress in enrolment is made on all aspects of UEE but a large
number of children still remain out-of-school.
Do the quantitative expansion of educational facilities imply that target of
universal enrolment will be achieved in the near future. The estimates of
enrolments and attendance give reasonably sound reasons to believe that
stipulated targets may not be achieved in the near future.
Mehta (1995 & 1998) projected that India may attain the status of UPE in
2007. The goal is likely to be
achieved by 2004-05 in case of boys and 2007-08 in case of girls. The projected enrolment further reveal
that all boys of age group 11-14 years are likely to be enrolled by 2007-08 but
universalisation of girls’ education would continue to remain far out of the
sight. However, a few states may achieve goal earlier than projected at the
all-India level (Table 22).
It may however be noted that without attaining the
status of universal primary enrolment, the goal of universal elementary
education cannot be achieved. Primary enrolment is a function of 6-11
years population but the same is not true in case of upper primary enrolment
(Varghese & Mehta, 1999a). Upper
primary enrolment is not a function of 11-14 year population but is a function
of primary graduates. Only primary graduates can obtain admission in upper
primary classes. It may be quite possible that many of the 11-14 year children
are out of system or there may also be dropped out children or are still in the
primary classes. Therefore, upper primary level of education cannot be expanded
in isolation of primary level. An inefficient primary system would send fewer
children to upper primary level. Thus, availability of graduates' along with
transition from primary to upper primary level would decide the future
expansion of upper primary level. The demand is more likely to be in the
educationally disadvantage areas where primary education has not been fully
expanded. Further expansion of primary education in these areas and high
transition from primary to upper primary level will generate more intensive
demand for upper primary education to expand.
Further improvement in transition may result into rapid demand for upper
primary education in year that follows.
7.
EFA THE YEAR 2000 ASSESSMENT
The
World Conference on Education for All –
The Year 2000 Assessment was held recently (April 2000) at Dakar, Senegal. A
lot of activities were initiated in this regard in India. The country report was
based upon a set of three core documents, namely (i) EFA 18-core indicators;
(ii) The state of the art review on learning achievements; and (iii) The state
of the art review on learning conditions. In addition, twenty-three studies
covering different aspects of EFA in India were also initiated. This exercise
has generated enormous amount of information about India in its efforts towards
achieving the goal of EFA during the previous decade.
In this section, a gist of findings of these studies is briefly presented (Box
2).
Box 2: EFA Year 2000 Assessment: Studies Conducted
in India
·
The study on
decentralization of education (by Vinod Raina) concludes that there is
little doubt that during the past decade, a noticeable desire to decentralize
primary education has been evident in the country. However, the limited attempts
to involve communities have not really translated in diminishing the role of the
state in controlling and regulating education.
·
The study
on participatory micro planning for universal
primary education (by Abhimanyu Singh observes that during the previous
decade a new hierarchy of micro planning has evolved Further, the study on role and contribution of NGOs to basic
education (by Disha Nawani) concludes that NGOs’ existed in India for over a
long period and has contributed immensely towards its various developmental
programmes. However, the study
notices tremendous diversity among the NGOs.
·
Over time, the concept of continuing education has undergone several
evolutionary changes and reincarnations.
The study on changing concepts and shifting goals (by
C. J. Daswani) advocates that for a post literacy programme to succeed, it is
necessary to ensure that the non-literate is equipped with stable literacy
skills before the basic literacy programme is terminated. Dr. A. Mathew in his
study on Indian engagement with adult
education and literacy also mentions that the methodology adopted for
implementation of the mass literacy campaigns during 1990s’ had brought in a
breath of fresh air.
·
The study
on early childhood care and education (by
Venita Kaul) concludes that there has been a quantum leap in services and
programmes related to ECCE during the last decade. The private sector is making
rapid expansion in this area but hardly there is any system of regulation. The
study emphasis the need to strengthen the linkages of ECCE programmes with
primary education so that it caters to overall development of the child and not
be limited to the academic learning aspect.
·
The study on role of
private schools in basic education (by Anuradha De, Manabi Majumadar, Meera
Samson and Claire Noronha) observes that private schools have been expanding
rapidly in recent years. It cautions that increasing privatization will only
increase the already strong gender bias in schooling.
The number of private institutions is expected to increase, if government system
is allowed to deteriorate further.
·
The study
on out-of-school children (by Sharada Jain)
presents various estimates of out-of-school children of age group 6-14 years
that ranges between 63 to 75 million. The children engaged in full-time work as
child labourers is estimated to be 60 million.
·
Though significant progress has been made in the provision
of education for all girls, the task is not yet complete (by Usha Nayar).
Provision of post primary education to girls in rural areas, continued
thrust on gender sensitive and gender inclusive curriculum etc. are the major
issues that are yet to be tackled with regards to education of girls.
·
The study on status
of elementary teachers (by A. S. Seetharamu) mentions that teachers are
rarely aware of the values of their work with the overall goals and values of
EFA. EFA is not integral to their thinking process. It further mentions that for
similar levels of qualifications, certification and performance teachers are
paid different salaries. Another study on primary teacher training in the EFA decade
(by C. Seshadri) observes that
primary teacher education has made remarkable progress in terms of increase in
enrolments, variety of training and support institutions. The creation of
National council of Teacher Education has, by and large, succeeded in creating a
conducive climate for the pursuit of quality in primary teacher education.
·
The study
on education of children with special needs (by Sudesh Mukhopadhyay and M. N. G. Mani) observes that the last decade of the
century recognized that children with disabilities and special education needs
to constitute a significant group in the monitoring of EFA targets. However,
there are still serious challenges, which would require increased effort and
decisions for ensuring expansion of educational facilities in different parts of
the country. The study on education among
tribals (by K. Sujatha) concludes that during the past few years, tribal
education has witnessed a rapid transformation particularly in the arena of
access, pedagogic reform and community participation. However, the study
cautions that improvement of educational scenario in tribal areas should not be
left out as an intermediate strategy rather efforts should be undertaken to make
it sustainable.
·
The study on
financing of elementary education in India
(by J. B. G. Tilak) reveals that
government expenditure on elementary education as proportion of national income
declined from 1.6 per cent in 1990-91 to 1.4 per cent in 1996-97.
It cautions that unless sufficient resources are devoted to elementary
education, the goal might remain unaccomplished.
The additional requirements of Rs. 137,000 crores in next ten years for
universalisation according to study is neither unachievable nor un-affordable.
The study suggests that a strong political commitment to finance liberally the
education sector from domestic resources seems to be the only alternative.
·
The study
on texts in context (by Anita Rampal)
concludes that there have been some major developments in the last decade,
though much still remains to be done. There has been a perceptible shift from a
monolithic mechanism of curriculum design, through an apex-centralized body, to
many more agencies involved in the exercise.
·
The study on
role of
media in EFA (by Avik Ghosh) observes that considerable investments are made
in using communication technologies in education and the coverage of basic
education in the media is more than it was 10-15 years ago. The access to
information resource centres online, downloading information etc. are a reality
to only a few teachers and students in the privileged private schools which
should be extended to more teachers and students through a well planned public
investment programme in basic education.
Summarized by the
author based on different EFA Year 2000 Assessment Studies conducted in India,
MHRD & NIEPA, 2000(d).
8. THE RECENT INITIATIVES
Since independence, India has made considerably progress towards the goal of UEE.
However, past trends do not indicate that the goal is right now in the sight.
However, the trend can be reversed and goal may be achieved earlier than
projected, if concerted efforts are made to bring all concerned under the
umbrella of education. The Union Government initiated a number of projects and
programmes under the Centrally Sponsored Schemes most of which
have been initiated after the National
Policy of Education was evolved in 1986 and World Conference on Education for All held at Jomtien in 1990. Some
of these projects in terms of their objectives and major achievements are
briefly discussed below.
(a) The Scheme of Operation Blackboard
The
scheme of Operation Blackboard (OB) was launched in
1987 to improve facilities in schools by providing for more teachers, rooms and
teaching learning equipments. The OB Scheme seeks to bring both the quantitative
and qualitative improvements in primary education. The scheme had three
components, namely (i) an additional teacher to single teacher primary schools;
(ii) providing at least two classrooms in each primary school; and (iii)
providing teaching-learning equipment to all primary schools. The scheme is
implemented through the
State Governments with 100 per cent assistance
from the Central Government towards the salary of additional teachers and
teaching learning equipments. It was proposed to cover all primary schools under
the OB scheme that were in existence as on September 30, 1986.
Construction of school buildings is the
responsibility of the State Governments but funds were arranged for this purpose
from other Ministries like the Rural Development. However in the revised scheme,
assistance is made available to State Governments on 75:25 share basis.
For construction of school buildings, an amount of Rs. 2,308 crores (about 550
Million US $) has been invested on OB scheme. About 185
thousand classrooms are constructed, 1.49 thousand teachers appointed and
520 thousand schools were provided teaching-learning equipments.
Recently the OB scheme has been extended to upper primary level and sanction of
third teacher to primary school having enrolment more than 100 has also been
provided. During the Ninth Plan, third teacher was provided to more than 22
thousand
schools and about 78 thousand upper primary
schools were covered and teaching-learning material supplied.
Despite all these significant achievements, all is
not well in schools. Large number of primary schools still has only one teacher
and do not have adequate physical facilities and other teaching-learning
material. In addition, a few schools do not have buildings and those who have,
may not be in good condition and need repairs. The instructional rooms are also
not adequate in a good number of primary schools.
Even if the teaching-learning material is available that itself is not a
guarantee that teachers are equipped to utilize these aids, which is noticed
recently even in a state like Kerala also. The OB support is one time affair and
the material provided under the scheme may not even traceable in a good number
of schools. Even teachers in schools spread over
four states that we visited recently were not aware of such equipments in
schools. Teachers in other schools
where the OB kits are available are of the view that they are inadequate.
It has also been noticed that teachers appointed
under the OB scheme are not efficiently deployed in schools. That is why we
still have single-teacher schools. On the other hand, a few schools have
got more than adequate number of teachers. This is more so true in case of
schools located in urban areas or in rural areas located near to towns and
cities. The OB scheme envisaged that one of the
two teachers appointed under the scheme would preferably be a female teacher. No doubt, OB interventions have improved
number of female teachers but in many locations their share is still poor. On an
average we have one female teacher for every 2 & 3 male teachers respectively at
primary and upper primary level. Detailed evaluation of the scheme is presently
carried out by NIEPA and the report is expected soon.
(b) District
Institutes of Education and Training
The
scheme to strengthen teacher education by establishing quality training
institutions, such as, the District Institutes of Education and Training
(DIET) was initiated in 1987. The scheme proposed to create viable
institutional, academic and technical resource base for orientations, training
and continuous up-gradation of knowledge, competence and pedagogical skills of
school teachers’ in the country. The guidelines provided seven academic units
with 22 faculty positions that cover different areas such as planning and
management, education technology, material development etc. Since then 433 DIETs have been
sanctioned of which 401 are functional. Below the district level, under DPEP,
Block Resource and Circle Resource Centres have been established that ensure
capacity building at the grassroots level. In non-DPEP districts, such
institutions are not in existence. However, the
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan envisages creating BRC and CRC in non-DPEP districts.
The DIETs are now twelve years old but still many of them do not function as was
envisaged in its guidelines (Box 3).
(c) Non-Formal
Education
The
Non-Formal Education (NFE)
scheme was initiated in 1979 to cater learning needs of working children and
children in difficult circumstances is one of the other important centrally
sponsored schemes. The NFE programme is for the children of 6-14 age group who
remain outside the formal system due to various reasons. Initially, the focus of
the programme was on to Nine Educationally Backward states but at present it is
in operation in 25 states. In 1999, there were 297 thousand NFE centers, which
had a total enrolment of 7.42 million. The duration of NFE course is two years
and a locally recruited and trained instructor is provided to impart education
(equivalent to formal system) at a time and place most convenient to learners in
smaller groups. A large number of voluntary agencies are also involved in NFE
programme. The total number of centers run by voluntary agencies was 59 thousand
in 1998-99. An amount of Rs. 1,195 million to States & UTs and Rs. 400 million
to voluntary agencies was released in 1998-99 for the implementation of the
programme. The scheme is recently revised and named as
Scheme of Alternative and Innovative Education.
The scheme envisages that
all habitations that do not have an elementary education centre within a radius
of one kilometre will have one at the earliest. As a part of the scheme,
school-mapping exercise will be conducted to identify school-less habitations,
which will help to locate habitations where alternative centres are to be
provided.
(d) Total
Literacy Campaigns
The
Total Literacy Campaigns mobilize communities and contributed to greater participation of children in
schools. So far 450 districts have been covered under the TLC of which 250
campaigns have moved into post-literacy and 65 to continuing education stage.
The campaigns cover an estimated 148 million persons. Of 94 million persons
enrolled, so far 73 million persons have been completed level III. The
uniqueness of the TLC lies in the fact that it is delivered through voluntarism.
The programme is being implemented through the
Zilla (district) Saksharata Samities
created for the purpose. As mentioned,
literacy rate has improved from 52 in 1991 to 62 percent in 1998.
(e)
National Programme for
Nutritional Support (Mid-day Meal)
The
National Programme for Nutritional Support to Primary Education (launched in 1995) provides food grains/cooked meals to children in primary
classes. The programme assures 100 grams of grains per day for attending schools
for at least 80 per cent of the total school days in a month. The programme had
benefited more than 98 million children spread over 0.69 million schools. In the
latest year, about 9.90 million children are covered under the scheme and
allocated 2.71 million metric tones of grains (Annual Report: MHRD, 1999-2000).
Along with teachers, local community is also given responsibility in the
distribution of grains. In previous years, a significant gap has been noticed in
quantity of food grains sanctioned and actually lifted. However, only 65 and 42
per cent children of age group 6-11 and 11-14 years were found to be attended
primary and upper primary schools in 1995-96 (NSSO, 1998). Since then the same,
due to mid-day meal intervention might have improved to a significant effect. This is also reflected in the absolute
enrolment during the period 1995-98. A few states are not keen to implement the
scheme because of the administrative problems or states like Punjab even do not
need such type of programme. Punjab is the highest food grains produced state of
the country. In difficult areas, the administrative cost